John F Kennedy’s Rice Stadium Moon Speech Analysis Essay

Since the industrial revolution, countries have been competing against each other to see who is the most advanced in medicine, technology, and education.In 1957, Russia successfully launched the first artificial satellite, this had started the space age and the United States of America and the U.S.S.R. space race. President John F Kennedy delivered the Rice stadium moon speech in hopes of persuading the American people to support NASA’s intention to send a space craft to the moon. Kennedy attempts to do this by the use of syntax and ethos. Kennedy begins by trying to establish credibility with his student audience by the use of ethos. Kennedy is made an â€Å"honorary visiting professor† and states that his â€Å"first lecture will be very brief†. By putting himself into the position of a professor, he tries to convey to his student audience that he will teach them something important and to open their minds to him. He then lists how humans have advanced learning to â€Å"use skins of animals to cover them† to developing â€Å"penicillin†¦television and nuclear power†. By listing these advancements in mankind, Kennedy shows the audience his knowledge and gives them another reason to trust what he is saying. In gaining the audiences trust, Kennedy can easily persuade them to support NASA’s intentions of sending an aircraft to the moon. The word choice and sentence structure Kennedy uses to deliver his speech helps to persuade American citizens to support NASA’s intentions. Kennedy uses phrases such as â€Å"10,000 automobiles†¦as tall as a 48 story structure†¦ [and] as wide as a city block†. He uses lament terms to appeal to the commons man’s ballpark figure of everyday lengths and power. With better understanding of what Kennedy is saying, his student audience can support NASA with their acquired knowledge. He then states how his surroundings are â€Å"noted for† knowledge, progress, and strength. By his word choice he helps to instill a sense of pride for the homeland. This promotes nationalism among the audience and their desire for their country to be helpful.

A clockwork orange: Futuristic fantasy Essay

A Clockwork Orange is a book with a moral. More than that, it is a warning: a caution to the 1960s society of which Burgess was a part. His predictions of the world to come are bloody and his depictions of militant regimes and totalitarian states are fantastic and profound. But they are not so far from the truth as one would think†¦ Burgess formed his picture of Alex’s world in the world he saw around him in the 1960s. This is most notable in the language that is used. It is absolutely full of Russian words: â€Å"horrorshow†, â€Å"krovvy†, â€Å"ptitsa†, and â€Å"tolchock†. This is of course a reference to the Soviet regime, which ruled over the USSR with an iron fist. At the time the Cold War was in full force, animosity was high and Soviet communism posed a real threat to the western democracies. But it is possible that Burgess was depicting the future world as well as his own. He is suggesting that if his own society were to carry on the way it was in his time, then it could possibly end up being as strict and oppressive as the Soviet regime. It is even a possibility that Burgess believed that the western countries, including his own country, the UK, would fall under the rule of communism and become Soviet states themselves. If this is true, then it suggests to me an admiration for the Soviet regime, not a dislike: he considered that the Soviets were so strong and organised, that western occupation was an actual possibility. But if this happened, Burgess believed it would be the end of the world as he knew it. Throughout the novel he makes subtle references to certain things he believed would not last under state control: art and literature. Alex himself says that â€Å"newspapers [were] not being read much†. Later he describes the â€Å"Public Biblio†, or library, â€Å"which not many lewdies used those days†. The boys wear masks later in the first chapter, and these are also significant. â€Å"Peebee† Shelley is seen as a novelty now; an age-old poet from years ago, long dead and long forgotten. Even Elvis Presley is included with Shelley and Henry VIII, suggesting that he too is simply a remnant of an old society. This had even more significance in the time Burgess wrote the novel, since Elvis was alive and famous and very much a part of modern popular culture. To Alex he is a name that means nothing. Even the remnant buildings of Oldtown are strange to him. They are from a time when people had a choice. The fall of literature and art is synonymous with the abolition of freedom. Literature, art and architecture are forms of expression – and in Alex’s world they do not exist, only in fleeting references and novelty masks. There is the boys’ appearance: the so-called â€Å"heighth of fashion† for their day. In many respects it is similar to fashion of the 1960s. The outrageous styles, indicated by the â€Å"old jelly mould†¦ fitting on the crotch under the tights†, funnily shaped into flowers, spiders and a â€Å"clown’s litso†. And there are also the very bright colours – â€Å"purple and green and orange wigs on their gullivers†. Rather unusually the boys also wear make-up. There are two possible explanations for this. The first is the most obvious: the boys want to be different. They are hitting out against organised state-control. The second reason is much more subtle: at the time Burgess wrote the novel, a sexual revolution was taking place; in particular, women were more free to take on the traditionally masculine practices, such as pursuing a career. Clearly, the boys are doing the same thing: adopting a traditionally female practice. It could be that Burgess is making a social statement: he predicts that in the future, the boundaries determining which gender takes on which role will be less definite. Yet it is still only a suggestion; Burgess’s old-style attitude towards the sexes is fairly clear in the book, since every major character is male. It is a strange combination of past and â€Å"future†. But although the boys want to stand out and not conform, they are ironically conforming within their own group. The weird clothes and make-up are components of their uniform, which exist mainly to control people in a militant fashion. They are fighting fire with fire. And if the make-up is an equality statement, then it is ironic also. The boys do not want to be equal to everyone else – they like to be different. And they do not want equal rights – they believe that they have, or should have, more rights, and can therefore defy the law through acts of violence. The message that Burgess is putting across here is ambiguous. Either he could be saying that too much state control will eventually force a violent revolution, and therefore the government should relax, which is probably the most common belief. Or his warning could be the opposite: he is saying that if the government give in and grant extra rights to everybody, then in the future there will be someone, somewhere, who has, or wants, more rights. I prefer to believe the latter theory. Burgess was not for violent revolution of any kind. A Clockwork Orange is a frightening prediction of the world to come if it continues to grant people so much power, and not a warning of how the world will be if state control continued. Eventually all of this freedom would necessitate state control, as it exists in Alex’s time. Burgess was for a certain degree of control – the use of Russian words in his novel, as explained above, is evidence for this. Although few people would agree with me, that is what I believe. Burgess’s novel was indeed written as a warning to those in his time. But despite the frightening depiction of state control, I do not think Burgess was so opposed to it as some people claim. I would only say that the totalitarian regime of Alex’s time is an example of an extreme form of state control that is certainly wrong, but only because of its severity. Burgess’s warning was not aimed at the government; it was aimed at those who dreamt of revolution. Only one thing is certain: the connotations are clear, and A Clockwork Orange is definitely not just a fantasy novel.

Book review Essay

Florence Industries, Inc. is a company which provides three entirely different types of products and services through three divisions of the company: consumer products division, industrial products division and professional services. Each division is treated as an entirely different company and the performance evaluation criteria is return on assets in recent years after major shift. Although, the divisions used to be treated as profit centres, this decision meant they are treated more as investment centres. The Company in 2008 & 2009: From the income statement for 2008 and 2009, it is noticed that there is an increase in revenue by 4% and 11% increase in net profit in 2009. From balance sheet for 2008 and 2009 it is noticed that Florence has issued shared and borrowed long term loan in order to invest in project required high asset cost as the company asset has increased by $ 50,460,000 during 2009. The Company has also declared a dividend to equity of $ 12,570,000 during 2009 and keep $ $11,736,000 to meet future expansion and expense of business Issues and Analysis: Rejecting Proposals Just Based On Gross Margin Requirement: CFO Ben Johnson has recently rejected the new product proposal of product development manager of consumer products division Calvin Marone as its estimated return of 13.67%(exhibit 1) per year was less than the 15% minimum gross return % requirement any new investment proposal should generate in order to get approve. The company’s 2007 gross return was 9.3 % and Ben estimated that it should go up easily to 12% and set target for each division to bring new product proposal of more than 15% gross return generating capabilities. Then again, gross return of Company in 2009 after rejecting the Marone’s proposal was 9.4%. Suppose if Marone’s proposal would have been accepted, then the Company 2009 gross return would have been approximately 9.6% (Exhibit 2) which would have been even higher than 2008 gross return of 9.5%. So, rejecting proposals that would have actually been beneficial just based on gross margin estimations seems redundant. Return on Investment Comparatively Low In Terms of Free Cash Flow: As per the balance sheet of Florence, it is noticed that there has been an increase in cash balance of $ 390,000 during the year 2009 as compared to 2008 balance. During 2009, the  Company has generated cash of $ 42,756,000 from operating activities and $ 13,950,000 from finance activities. Further the Company has used cash of $ 56,316,000(Exhibit 3) in investing activities. Company has used its majority of cash flow generated from operational and financing activities in investing activities. However in case of Florence, the free cash flow is less than the amount of investment made by the company in 2009 which indicate that the company is highly dependent on third party finance for expansion. However, the company has taken initiatives to counter this. They have broken down divisions into investment centres as compared to cost centres which will help enhance the performance of the divisions and influence them to get more out of investments made. By converting the divisions in investment units, it become the overall responsibility of division managers to generate the profit to the company not only on the basis of revenue and expense but also on the basis of total asset employed in order to run the division. Same Performance Evaluation Standard for Each Division: There are some negatives that came out of the Investment Center approach. First, it may not be appropriate to use one Gross return performance standard for all divisions of Florence, considering differences in type of service provided, products, operations, risks, and differences in measurement because of asset age. These divisions cannot be compared with the same yardstick. For example, Professional services division does not use much asset so it will be inappropriate to measure its performance on the basis of gross return % (exhibit 4). Also, as division manager of Industrial Products division tried to explain, Consumer Products Division had a lot of old machines in their assets meaning those depreciated assets, whatever return they come up with, are making things look better in terms of return on assets than they are in reality. Moreover, including allocated corporate asset in the computation of gross return figure means that division and division managers are held accountable for costs and assets over which they don’t have any control at all. Recommendations: Have Other Evaluation Criteria Along with Investment Center Approach: The decision to treat divisions as investment center has its benefits. Benefits of this approach include improvement in operational decision making, reduction in cost of corporate administration, increased motivation at  division level, and freeing corporate management up for more effective utilization. However, there are some pitfalls as well. Just having return on assets as decision criteria isn’t enough and they should take other criteria into account. Criteria like Economic Value Added which takes into account costs of financing the capital or even simple Net Profit which judges the division’s profitability as a whole. And, to counter the problem of having too many old machines in the consumer products division compare to other divisions, the company could take out the depreciation and compare to see how it affects ROA as a whole when taken in to account and when not. That should give the company a clearer picture. Developing a Balanced Scorecard: Developing a balance scorecard should go some way to make sure performance evaluation is fair and is illustrative of actual performance as it takes into account different measures for different functions usually. In this case, Florence would of course has to make it about the divisions rather than functions of business. In the suggested balanced scorecard below (Figure-1) we can see a bit modified targets and measures for different divisions as their goals are slightly different. Figure-1 For both consumer products and industrial products divisions, returns based on both net profit and ROA are important and give a fairer comparison. Customer satisfaction (in Industrial products division’s case it’s more the satisfaction based on compliance with specific designs is another evaluation criteria for both and the target for both should be bettering last year’s performance in each measures. For the professional services division, the growth has been rapid in recent years and retaining that growth will be important. Another important measure is corporate social responsibility i.e. environmental impact studies the division performs which not only is required by the law but also helps build reputation for the company and is part of CSR activities. So, it’s important to keep that into context. Develop evaluation criteria for new projects: Florence Industries Inc. needs to change evaluation criteria for new projects as it is noticed they’re rej ected a project that would have been beneficial for them every which way just because it didn’t fulfil ROA requirement. Along with ROA, CFO Ben could also analyse the below mentioned points before accepting or rejecting any new project: 1)Project payback period 2)Project NPV (Net present value) 3)Project IRR (Internal rate of return) Conclusion: Florence’s sales growth has been phenomenal for a new company and now it’s time to make some major managerial decisions that will shape the future. And, they have started doing so by transforming the divisions into investment centers from profit centers. While it is a good way to go, creating a balance is necessity and having a more comprehensive knowledge about how every division is doing based on more than one evaluation criteria will be important. Each division is run in their own way and the dissimilarities are far greater to just keep evaluating them based on the investment approach. Also, they can’t keep rejecting projects based on one simple requirement as it hinders the growth of the company. That’s why we suggest Florence Industries Inc. to be a bit more open-minded and take broader aspects in consideration and make things fairer for the divisions and the upcoming projects as well.

The effect of temperature on the Kinesis behavior of fly larvae Essay

The effect of temperature on the Kinesis behavior of fly larvae - Essay Example Firstly, enzymes play a major role in the respiration process. Respiration provides larvae with more energy to carry out movements. On the other hand, enzyme activities depend on temperature. Increases in temperature lead to more enzymatic activity. An increase in enzymatic activity spurs the respiration process in turn making more energy that enables the larvae to cover more distance. However, increases in temperature past the optimal point would lead to denaturation of the enzyme, which would result in less energy production. Consequently, the distance that the larvae cover reduces (Sharma 2013). Secondly, the optimal temperature of 24 degrees Celsius allowed the larvae to reach their maximum metabolic rate. That is why the distance covered by the larvae tends to increase up until the optimum temperature is reached (Johnson & Case 2013). Thirdly, other environmental factors such as light affect the movement of larvae. This experiment did not control such factors, which influence the movement of the larvae. For instance, a change in the wavelength of light would lead to a change in the movement of larvae. Similarly, the intensity of light can have an influence on the movement of larvae (Gadd & Sariaslani 2013). In order to control the effects of light intensity and wavelength on the movement of larvae, I would perform the experiment under different light settings. This would enable me to measure the influence of light on the experiment. Finally, another explanation for the results is the large spread in data. This could be a resultant of differences in the genetic composition and metabolic state of the larvae. Additionally, there was no repeat of the experiments. In order to control these effects in future experiments; I would use a larger sample size and perform three trials for every experiment (Raven & Johnson 2002). One of the possible errors is the direction that the larvae covered. Even though the larvae seemed

Cross Cultural Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Cross Cultural Management - Essay Example The diversity management programs are aimed at creating a welcoming organizational environment. Without the diversity management programs in workplaces there would be trouble within the organization in terms of employee relations and general performance of the company. This is because the policies in place do not accommodate people of diverse cultures. For example, an employee may have different sexual orientation from the one that is permitted within the policies of the organization. The employee in question may be good and productive, but since the organization cannot accommodate the culture, the employee is forced to lose the job. Cox (2001) notes, â€Å"The challenge of diversity is not simply to have it but to create conditions in which its potential to be a performance barrier is minimized and its potential to enhance performance is maximized. (P.10). The main reasons that make companies adapt to the cultural diversity of their personnel are to give individuals equal opportuni ties, compensatory justice, equality in the workplace, increase talent pools , competitive advantage, and to make good business sense. Solutions to questions Give individuals equal opportunities Adapting to the cultural diversity of personnel is aimed at giving equal opportunities to individuals. ... This can lead to a loss-loss situation in that, the individual will lose the job and the company may miss the opportunity to recruit a competent employee. Compensatory justice The companies encourage diversity in workplaces†to overcome historical discrimination against specific groups of people to compensate those who have been intentionally and unjust fully wronged (kellough, 2006; Valasquez, 2005).These specific groups of people may have been discriminated due to their race, ethnicity and sexual orientation. Compensatory justice is another way of improving the corporate image and enhancing equality within the organization. This is most people like to be employed by the companies that have improved both their formal and informal structures to accommodate them. This is because everyone wishes to work in an environment in which they feel safe and adequately represented. Promotion of equality in workplace Having policies and structures that support diverse cultures is an effectiv e way of promoting equality in a workplace. This creates the picture within the organization that no culture is given preference over the other. All cultures are treated equally. The equity has not been achieved in most organizations. This is because most companies tend to exclude the majority group and give special attention to the minority group. This still does not achieve equality as the majority group becomes the discriminated group. Cultural diversity management not only refers to the groups that have been looked down upon, but to the â€Å"mixture of differences, similarities and tensions that can exist among the elements of a pluralistic mixture† (Thomas, 2005, P.93). Increased talent

Marketing Plan for It's popcorn time Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Marketing Plan for It's popcorn time - Essay Example To materialize the marketing vision, IPT needs to evolve strategic marketing plans which are crucial part of promoting products and services of an organization. The market plans are focused around Porter’s 4Ps (product, prices, place and promotion) and a good market strategy always takes these points on a priority basis. It is equally important that while planning appropriate market strategy, proper use of SWOT (strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats) analysis is taken up. Awareness of strengths and weaknesses in the company’s resources facilitate and match the opportunities and threats so as to provide a competitive edge to their rivals. SWOT analysis is an important tool to up grade internal strengths of the company to meet the external opportunities and exploit them in a manner that would provide the companies with cutting edge advantage over their rivals. Franchising has become a very important tool of expanding business globally and helps maintain an edge over their competitors. In the recent times, internet has redefined the communication with its far reaching implications and has become one of the most important parts of any business strategy. With so much choice in the open market, the updated and informed website gives the unique advantages of the products and their usefulness to draw in new customers while keeping the old. The customer is always interested in the end result of his purchase so he needs to be shown the extra benefits that he would be getting on the purchase! The feedbacks give the company opportunity to keep up with the constantly changing requirements of the consumers. The fundamental principle of marketing is to promote a committed clientele through quality goods and services. It is for this purpose that market strategies of big business houses and corporate bodies try to promote their goods and

Climate Change and Green Buildings Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Climate Change and Green Buildings - Essay Example Global warming is not merely an environmental issue but has several far-reaching economic repercussions as well. Accordingly, a new revolution in the real-estate market is observed, where efforts are on to build a low-carbon society, which has now become highly popular among the public and a top international priority. Although, cynicism regarding the viability of such a project i.e. economic benefits of green buildings, exist there are equally enthusiastic reports by researchers regarding its positive influences on reducing the carbon footprint. In recent years, amid growing concern that the impact of climate change is becoming more severe, there are indications that we are moving towards solutions to the problem. For example, when it comes to global warming issues, it is said that anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, are more than double the amount absorbable by nature, such as by forests and oceans. In order to prevent any further increase in gree nhouse gases in the atmosphere, it will be necessary to cut these emissions by at least 50%. Regarding the issue of biodiversity as a serious environmental problem along with climate change, at the 9th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity held in May 2008, The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity(TEEB) study was announced. The TEEB study showed not only serious economic losses brought on by the progressive loss of biodiversity and ecological destruction, but also by the impact of deforestation in poor countries causing various natural disasters, such as floods. These are examples of the various repercussions of global warming whereby human actions have triggered a series of natural disasters leading to a vicious cycle of worsening poverty, food crisis, and shortage of pure drinking water in several developing countries where the actions of people in developed countries cause a negative impact on the water, food, and fish in developing countries. An other aspect of the study involved the use of market mechanisms as an advanced approach to biodiversity conservation (TEEB, 2008). Also, at the 10th Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity held in Nagoya, Japan in November 2010, the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity’s Final Report was published. It was reported that various species are rapidly becoming extinct the speed of extinction of species is climbing as a result of the effect of climate change on ecosystems, and if appropriate measures are not taken, global losses in annual Natural Capital may rise to as much as 4.5 trillion dollars (TEEB, 2010). According to the EDMC Handbook of Energy & Economic Statistics in Japan 2009, the total amount of CO2 Emissions doubled globally from 1971 to 2007, with an increase of 98% across the world. This study focused on developed and developing countries (BRICs) that regularly emit substantial amounts of CO2, and also tracked these emissions on an annual basis. Increased industrialization, spurred by more construction, manufacturing, transportation, and travel, is reflected in the raised CO2 emissions from all the countries in the study. The developed countries (BRICs), however, showed an even higher increase, as a result of foreign companies expanding their

Term project part III Statistics Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Term part III - Statistics Project Example Similarly, businesses will come to a standstill if the crime rate is high in the city. This study will therefore inform the police department and other relevant bodies involved in combating crime on the measures that are needed to be undertaken in order to mitigate crime rate in the cities. Since the study seeks to relationship between city crime rate and the number of uniformed forces in those cities or any other variable, the city dwellers will form a desired representative sample population for the study. This means that the city dwellers will form the target population for this particular study. So as to obtain a representative sample, the population will comprise all the adults over 18 years old regardless of gender, race or place origin of the respondents. Since it is not possible to interview all the city dwellers, a random sample of 400 participants will be selected. A systematic random sampling will be used to select the participants into the study. That is, the study will identify 8 cities of interest from which 50 respondents will be drawn. The data set will be obtained from the FBI and local city websites. Questionnaire will be the main tool to be used in collecting the views of the people. The variables of interest in this case will be crime rate (dependent variable) and explanatory variables (number of uniformed forces, mean income per year, education level and population size). Each data set for every variable was sourced from websites of local city and FBI. The data set for education level variable was obtained from this website: www.census.gov/ Descriptive statistics, particularly histogram, was used to analyse each variable. The histograms presented below, by visualization, show that all the data set followed a normal distribution (the data set is normal). From the all the histograms below, most of the observations were around the mean at least for each variable. This concentration of

Does music play a central role in the Goth scene Essay

Does music play a central role in the Goth scene - Essay Example Elsewhere goth is described in terms of an identity that is counter-culture and goes against the grain of popular society. It chooses deliberately to be unpopular and to go its own way in terms of self-development, fashion, music, and other key lifestyle aspects, including the choice of friends and activities (Urban Dictionary 2014; Williams 2006). Meanwhile, from the point of view of the rest of society, goth, the goth scene, and goth subculture tend towards the fringe and dark side of things. This is the case in fashion and in elements of popular culture such as music. That said, the mainstream seems to have mixed reactions towards Goth, with many seeing goth as a benign and a valid way for teenagers and disaffected youth to define themselves and their group (Gold and Cuda 1999). While simple definitions abound, modern day contexts for Goth and the Goth scene seem to indicate that Goth identity and the elements of Goth are fluid and are continuously evolving. There is the assertion in Daniel and Desantis (2013) that Goth as a movement of counterculture owes its staying power to the lasting appeal of its aesthetic, which is not death but persistent non-death. Goth seems to thrive by going against the mainstream. The emphasis is ongoing against what mainstream society prescribes in terms of activities, what to do, and fashion, what to wear, among other things. Moodiness and an inclination towards the dark and lonely side of things is a pervasive emotional atmosphere. This moodiness is what outside society sees from the outside looking in. As subculture, meanwhile, Goth has within it elements relating to the free expression of sexuality, defining artifacts and features that include certain fashion and musical preferences as described above (Daniel and Desantis 2013; Fereday n.d.; Wilkins 2004; Hodkinson 2005; Tumblr 2014; Smith 1997). Music too comes up inevitably in discussions of Goth, as a key

I will upload the Info to who I need to send it to when get to the Essay

I will upload the Info to who I need to send it to when get to the step - Essay Example The popularity of the social networking culture may seem to picture a different story but the fact remains that online friends can never take the place of real life friends and seldom provide the comfort that real friends provide. Being a part of a social-networking group I never mind adding new friends on receiving friend-requests from people I have met once or twice or sometimes never met at all, but the truth is I myself consider it a social networking group rather than what we call a friend circle. I will never be comfortable sharing most of my matters over the internet than I am sharing face to face with my own friends. Many of us will agree that the people we meet online are less close to us as compared to those relationships we have offline. Online friendships are though totally unsatisfying. In many of my friends’ cases I have known people who have considerable comfort levels with online friends and they are quite satisfied but still the place of the online real life f riendships stands far in comparable to those online friends. To understand the impact of internet on the social relationships of the people, we need to analyze two main evidences. First is the effect of computer mediated communication on the social relationships, i.e., what is the quality of the communication established on the internet compared to that of communication through other media .Also, the sustainability of such relationships made on the internet to that of our personal and face to face relationship with friends .Secondly, we need to understand how computer mediated communication effects one’s mix of social interactions and relationships. The communication impact will be very different in case of computer mediated relationships as compared to the traditional relationships and communication with well established friends. However, people may argue the usefulness of this type of relationships stating the convenience of communicating and getting the work done on the in ternet. To some extent, it is also true, information technology advancements are responsible for the current globalization effects in trades and businesses across the globe. The growth in information technology has today enabled users to get the work done in any part of the world at the click of a button and make huge profits in business by communicating on the internet. But, the reliability of the work done is much better in case of telephony or face to face conversation. I am sure many people will agree to the fact that it was easier to get their works done by telephony conversation or personal meeting while internet conversation simply contributed exchange of information. In my personal case too, I have inferred that the nature of relationships online and offline is varied to a great extent. Communication with online relationships is less frequent and weaker than that of offline relationships. This frequency of communication predicts psychological closeness to offline acquaintanc es and there is seldom rather nil closeness in case of online relationships. Over the internet too we tend to communicate frequently with established real life friends than sharing with online partners. Despite of this people do not not have a sense of belonging for these members, they can communicate well, share their interests and exchange information on the internet but

Project topics - Journal of Engineering Research and Studies Essay Example for Free

Project topics Journal of Engineering Research and Studies Essay Journal of Engineering Research and Studies E-ISSN0976-7916 Research Paper SEPARATION OF OIL AND PECTIN FROM ORANGE PEEL AND STUDY OF EFFECT OF pH OF EXTRACTING MEDIUM ON THE YIELD OF PECTIN Shekhar Pandharipande*a, Harshal Makodeb Address for Correspondence *a- Associate Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, Laxminarayan Institute of Technology, Rashtrasant Tukdoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Bharat Nagar, Amravati Road, Nagpur,India. b B. Tech student, Department of Chemical Engineering, Laxminarayan Institute of Technology, Rashtrasant Tukdoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Bharat Nagar, Amravati Road, Nagpur, India. ABSTRACT An orange, specifically, the sweet orange (Citrus sinensis (L.)) is the most commonly grown tree fruit in the world. The present work addresses to the development of the part of the process needed for the extraction of value added products like orange oil and pectin from orange peel, which is the waste of orange juice processing industry. The outcome of the present work highlighted that the sweet orange peels are good source of orange oil and pectin and does have the potential to become important raw material for food processing industries. Two methods namely simple distillation leaching have been explored for separation of oil from peels. The remains of cake in this part is further treated for isolation of pectin. It is found from the experimental observations that the peel source, for extraction of pectin, when taken after extracting orange oil through simple distillation gives higher yield than leaching residue. It is concluded that the process in which orange oil is first extracted using technique of simple distillation followed by acid extraction of pectin is most suitable for industrial production for isolation of pectin. These results demonstrate the successful extraction of orange oil and pectin, providing potential benefits for  industrial extraction of pectin from an economic and environmental point of view. KEYWORDS orange peel, pectin extraction, orange essential oil 1.1 INTRODUCTION An orange, specifically, the sweet orange (Citrus  sinensis (L.)) is the most commonly grown tree fruit  in the world. Orange trees are widely cultivated in  tropical and subtropical climates for the sweet fruit,  which is peeled or cut (to avoid the bitter rind) and  eaten whole, or processed to extract orange juice,   also for the fragrant peel. Citrus fruits are at the top  not only in total production, but also in economic  value. The albedo is the main source of pectin. Pectin  includes all the esterified polygalacturonic acids at  different degree of neutralization. In the presence of  saccharine and small quantities of organic acids  (usually citric acid), pectins gelatinized, and this  property is exploited by the agrochemistry and  pharmaceutical industries for pectin isolation. Orange  essential oil is present in small ductless gland  contained in the peel of the orange fruits. The main  constituent of orange peel essential oil is d-limonen e  (present to the extent of at least 90 %), which is the  only hydrocarbon present. The d-limonene is  extracted from orange rinds or solids. The rinds and  pulp are sent to an evaporator and the d-limonene is  steamed out. It is widely known for its pleasant scent  and degreasing properties. d-limonene is currently  being used in many applications such as chlorinated  solvents replacements, hand cleaners and sewage  treatments. The orange processing industry can get a  complete makeover if due importance is given for  separation of useful ingredient from orange peel.  Researchers and Scientists have been working on the  separation of oil and pectin from orange peel and  reporting their findings in journals of repute. A brief  summary includes orange peel: organic waste or  energetic resource(1), Waste to wealth: Industrial raw  materials potential of peels of Nigerian sweet orange  (Citrus sinensis)(2), method of distilling a volatile  constituent from liquid mixture(3), Optimization of  pectin acid extraction from passion fruit peel  (Passiflora edulis flavicarpa) using response surface  methodology(4), Extraction and Qualitative Assessment of African Sweet Orange Seed Oil(5), JERS/Vol. III/ Issue II/April-June, 2012/06-09 Comparisons between different techniques for waterbased extraction of pectin from orange peels(6) , microwave-assisted Isolation of essential oil of  Cinnamomum iners Reinw. ex Bl.: Comparison with  Conventional hydrodistillation(7), Microwave-assisted  extraction of pectin from orange peel(8), microbial  production of pectin from Citrus peel(9), Optimization  of Pectin Extraction from Peel of Dragon Fruit  (Hylocereus polyrhizus)(10), Determining the Yield  and Quality of Pectin from Fresh Peel Pectin  Pomace(11) and Microbial Production of Pectin from  Citrus Peel(12) . The present work (13) explored the possibility of  separation of essential oils and pectin from the  orange peels. Nagpur is major orange producing  centre in the subcontinent and even recognised in the  name of oranges as, Orange city. 1.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS: The present work is divided into following parts: I. Separation of oil from peels. a) Using the method of simple distillation b) Using ethanol as solvent in the method of leaching II. Extraction of pectin from oil peels a) From fresh peels, the leftover b) From dried cake remained after simple distillation and leaching as in part I 1.2.1 Separation of oil from peels: Raw Material: The raw material taken under examination for the extraction of orange oil (d-limonene) and pectin is orange peel. Orange peels are removed from fresh oranges which are procured from local market and which were harvested in the month of December 2011 to January 2012. Methods: Simple distillation is employed for removal of essential oil from orange peel. Dried and fined ground orange peel powder is added with known quantity of water which is simple distilled off for approximately one hour. The solid remains of the residue are dried to obtain the dry cake. The distillate Journal of Engineering Research and Studies E-ISSN0976-7916 resulted in to two phases, oil and water. Two phases  are separated and orange oil is obtained. For 350 gm  of orange powder taken, 8 ml of oil and 126.3 gm of  dried cake is obtained. The method of leaching is also explored for removal  of oil from peels. 380 gm of fresh orange peel are extracted with 225 ml of ethanol. After adequate  contacting, two phases, solid and liquid are separated,  198 gm of wet slurry resulted into 150 gm of dry  cake. However oil could not be recovered following  this method. The dried cake obtained is further  treated for separation of pectin in next part of present  work.  1.2.2 Extraction of pectin from orange peels:  The objective of this part of work is extraction and  isolation of pectin from fresh orange peel sample and  the dry cake sample left after extraction of oil using  simple distillation as in part I. The objective includes  the study of the effect of pH of the medium on the  yield of pectin extracted. The process flow chart is as shown in the figure 1. Table no 1: Experimental observations of yield of pectin at different pH Fig no 1: Process flow chart for extraction of pectin from orange peel sample Citric acid in distilled water solutions of desired pH  values 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are prepared. Orange peel samples weighing 10 gm each are dipped in to the  solution and heated at 800C for 10 minutes. After  cooling the solution, it is filtered using cloth filter  and Whatman filter paper under vacuum. Ethanol is  added to the filtered solution to facilitate filtration of  pectin. The solution is filtered using fine filter cloth  or centrifuge at 8000 rpm for 15 min at 100C to  separate jelly pectin which is dried under vacuum at  500C and -100 mmHg gauge for two hours. Dried  pectin is thus obtained. The observations are given in  table no 1.  Yield % of pectin is based on the gram of peel sample taken, and is calculated by formula as given below; Fig no 2: Pectin yield at different pH of extracting medium 1.2.2.1: Comparison of yield of pectin from the dry cake residue left after simple distillation and leaching: Same procedure is applied for separation of pectin in  this part of present work, as followed in part 1.2.2.the  observations are tabulated in table 2 pictorial  details output of process are depicted in fig 3. Table no 2: Experimental observations of  comparison of yield of pectin from the dry cake  residue left after simple distillation and leaching  where Ypec (%) is the extracted pectin yield in per cent (%), P is the amount of dry pectin in g and Bi is the initial amount of orange peel in gram. Results and discussion: The maximum yield of pectin is obtained at   extraction medium pH of 1. However negligible yield  is obtained at pH of 4 and 5 as can be seen from  graph plotted between pectin yield % obtained for  various values of pH of medium as shown in fig 2. JERS/Vol. III/ Issue II/April-June, 2012/06-09 Journal of Engineering Research and Studies Result and discussion: The yield of pectin obtained is highest in turbid  extract, but this might be due to some suspended  impurities present in the extract. The maximum  overall yield of the pectin is obtained from orange  peel residue sample through simple distillation. Therefore, in the process of orange oil and pectin  extraction from orange peel, it is recommended on  basis of results obtained, that to first extract oil using  simple distillation and then isolate pectin with acid  hydrolysis technique. 1.3 CONCLUSION Nagpur region is well known in central Asia as  largest orange producing region. It is also known as  the California of India, producing excellent quality  oranges in large number. Though it has great  production of oranges, the downstream processing  and value added product manufacturing technology is  not yet developed. The present work is dedicated for E-ISSN0976-7916 the development of the part of the process technology  needed for the extraction of value added products i.e.  orange oil and pectin from orange peel, which is the  waste of orange juice processing industry. The  present work revealed that the sweet orange peels are  good source of orange oil and pectin and does have  the potential to become important raw material for  food processing industries. It is found from the  experimentation that the peel source, for extraction of  pectin, when taken after extracting orange oil through  simple distillation gives higher yield than leaching  residue. So it can be concluded that the process in  which orange oil is first extracted using technique of  simple distillation followed by acid extraction of  pectin is most suitable for industrial production. These results demonstrate the successful extraction of  orange oil and pectin, providing potential benefits for  industrial extraction of pectin from an economic and  environmental point of view. Fig no 3: Pictorial presentation of the process for comparison of yield of pectin from the dry cake residue left after simple distillation and leaching Amboni. (2009). optimisation of pectin acid extraction REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. Martà ­n M.A, Siles J.A.1, El Bari H, Chica A. F, Università © Ibn Tofail. Facultà © dos Sciences. Kenitra (Maroc) .(2008). Orange Peel: Organic Waste or Energetic Resource? Tobias I. Ndubuisi Ezejiofor, N. V. Eke, R. I. Okechukwu, R. N. Nwoguikpe and C. M. Duru. (2011) Waste to wealth: Industrial raw materials potential of peels of Nigerian sweet orange (Citrus sinensis). African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 10(33), pp. 6257-6264. Gorden P. Gerow, Davenport, Fla.(1982). Method Of Distilling A Volatile Constituent From Liquid Mixture. United States Patent, 4,326,926. Erika Kliemann, Karina Nunes de Simas, Edna R. Amante, Elane Schwinden Prudeˆncio, Reinaldo F. Teo ´ filo, Ma ´ rcia M. C. Ferreira Renata D. M. C. JERS/Vol. III/ Issue II/April-June, 2012/06-09 5. 6. 7. from passion fruit peel (Passiflora edulis flavicarpa) using response surface methodology. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 44, 476–483. Nwobi BE, Ofoegbu O O B Adesina. (2006). Extraction And Qualitative Assessment Of African Sweet Orange Seed Oil. African Journal of food agriculture nutrition and development. Vol. 6 ISSN 1684-5374. S. Yeoh, J. Shi, T.A.G. Langrish. (2008). Comparisons between different techniques for water-based extraction of pectin from orange peels. Elsevier, Desalination 218, 229–237. Weerachai Phutdhawong, Rungthip Kawaree, Samart Sanjaiya, Waya Sengpracha Duang Buddhasukh.(2007). Microwave-Assisted Isolation of Essential oil of innamomum iners Reinw. ex Bl.: Journal of Engineering Research and Studies Comparison with Conventional Hydrodistillation. Molecules ISSN 1420-3049 8. Zheng Jie, Yang Ting, Wu Qiang, Li Jing, Wang YaNa. (2009). Microwave-assisted Extraction of Pectin from Orange Peel. Vol. 30, No. 20, p. 134-137. 9. P.Y. Tang, C.J. Wong and K.K. Woo. (2011). Optimization of Pectin Extraction from Peel of Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus). Asian Journal of Biological Sciences, ISSN 1996-3351, Knowledgia Review, Malaysia, 4 (2): 189-195. 10. P. G. Crandall, R. J. Braddock, and A. H. Rouse. (1978). Determining The Yield And Quality Of Pectin From Fresh Peel And Pectin Pomace. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 91:109-111. 11. Takuo Sakai Minoru Okushima. (1998). Microbial Production of Pectin from Citrus Peel.Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 39, No. 4, p. 908912. 12. Harshal Makode (2012).Project report submitted for B Tech to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University,Nagpur. JERS/Vol. III/ Issue II/April-June, 2012/06-09 E-ISSN0976-7916

Between White and Roberts Essay Example for Free

Between White and Roberts Essay Between the descriptive essay Once More to the Lake by E.B. White, and the narrative essay How to Say Nothing in 500 Words by P.M. Roberts I find the descriptive essay to be far more interesting to read for the way it is written appeals to the senses of the reader. Both essays, however, carry good merit and are written very well. The essay that is currently being presented is an interpretation of the similarities and differences between the styles of these two essays, and the impact they have on the reader as well. Among the major differences between the two essays is the way they are structured. In the essay â€Å"How to Say Nothing in 500 Words† Roberts uses nine different headings relating to the key elements of what he is writing about. He breaks down each component of what he considers to be good practices of writing with each section consisting of its own idea. He uses this method to present multiple ideas pertaining to the same general subject of the essay. Using headings to separate ideas and points is a good way to present information clearly, but it also gives a paper an impersonal and formal feeling that most casual or average readers do not relate to. In â€Å"Once More to the Lake†, however, White does not separate ideas into different headings. The story he tells in his essay progresses forward without being broken up into multiple ideas, and the general subject does not change throughout the essay in any major way. The entire essay reads like it is its own chapter of a book. It provides the reader with a fluent story from start to finish. Another large difference between these two essays is in the tone and language that the authors use. Roberts uses a mostly formal tone and language throughout most of his essay. There are a few places in which he uses mild humor to keep the readers’ interest, but his dry tone mixed with the subject his essay is centered on limits the effectiveness of his attempts. One such attempt at humor is where he speaks of a college  professor grading essays in the sentence, â€Å"As he reads paper after paper all saying the same thing in almost the same words, all bloodless, five hundred words dripping out of nothing, he wonders how he allowed himself to get trapped into teaching English when he might have had a happy and interesting life as an electrician or a confidence man.† (P.M. Roberts) He has a very dry sense of humor that leaves the reader wondering why he even makes the attempt at humor in many cases. White uses an informal tone in his essay, and uses language that appeals to the readers’ senses. He makes no attempts at humor in his essay like Roberts does, but he instead paints pictures of scenery with words in exuberant detail. The depth and detail with which he writes stirs the readers’ emotions and memories in the way he tells of his own memories. He takes the mind of the reader on a journey with him as he recounts memories of his childhood. The tone he uses is one that is somber and serious, but also quite casual. â€Å"Summertime, oh summertime, pattern of life indelible, the fade proof lake, the woods unshatterable, the pasture with the sweet fern and the juniper forever and ever, summer without end; this was the background, and the life along the shore was the design, the cottages with their innocent and tranquil design, their tiny docks with the flagpole and the American flag floating against the white clouds in the blue sky, the little paths over the roots of the trees leading from camp to camp and the paths leading back to the outhouses and the can of lime for sprinkling, and at the souvenir counters at the store the miniature birch-bark canoes and the post cards that showed things looking a little better than they looked.† (E.B. White) It is with the use of this kind of language that White fills the writing canvas, as well as the reader’s thoughts, with the detailed images of the surroundings of the lake. The subject matter between the essays by Roberts and White is yet another drastic difference. â€Å"How to Say Nothing in 500 Words† is an informative narrative essay about what to, and what not to do in the writing of a college essay. It is a strictly academic essay. It covers a number of points of what kind of language and ideas to use in a college level paper. The section of his essay that he names â€Å"Call a Fool a Fool† can easily be summarized as him trying to get across that one should say what they think of a matter regardless of what they think the instructor grading the paper or anyone else that might read it would think of what you have to say. He  basically states that if it is your opinion, then state it without worrying that it may offend anyone that may not share the same view. The subject matter of Roberts’ essay is a topic that only a college student would truly care to read about. The subject matter of the essay by White, however, is nearly as far in the other direction as you can get from Roberts’ essay about writing an essay about college football. White’s essay â€Å"Once More to the Lake† is about his visit with his son back to the same lake that his own father took him to every summer with his family while he was growing up. He describes in detail the changes that have occurred in the many years since he had been back to the lake, and the times he had with his family in his youth as well as the time he is spending there now with his own son. â€Å"Inside, all was just as it had always been, except there was more Coca Cola and not so much Moxie and root beer and birch beer and sarsaparilla. We would walk out with a bottle of pop apiece and sometimes the pop would backfire up our noses and hurt. We explored the streams, quietly, where the turtles slid off the sunny logs and dug their way into the soft bottom; and we lay on the town wharf and fed worms to the tame bass. Everywhere we went I had trouble making out which was I, the one walking at my side, the one walking in my pants.† (White E.B.) The way he describes and speaks of his surroundings and the small adventures that he and his son embark upon makes it evident that he truly cares about the story he has written, and that the entire compositio n is a nostalgic journey through his past and present. The feelings that he clearly has while writing his essay is something that nearly any reader can relate to. Now that the major contrasting points between the two essays have been presented we should move on to the similarities, but there are next to no similarities at all. The most prominent similarity between them is simply the fact that both compositions are considered essays. They are written in completely different styles on completely different subjects, and with a completely different reading audience in mind. It can be said, however, that both essays are properly written for their intended audience, and one could also argue that the essays are similar in regards to the fact that both essays give the reader something to think about after having read the compositions, but that would be reaching very far to find some form of similarity simply for the sake of being able to say that they are similar in some fashion. It is easy to say  that the two essays contrast in major ways, but it is not so easy to say that they compare in any significant way. The essays â€Å"How to Say Nothing in 500 Words† by P.M. Roberts, and â€Å"Once More to the Lake† by E.B. White are both well written, but the descriptive essay by White is the superior of the two for his use of easily understood descriptive language and the seamless flow of his ideas and thoughts on the paper making for an easy and enjoyable read. His essay is also written about a subject that nearly any reader can relate to in some way while the essay by Roberts is aimed more at a particular demographic. Roberts also uses a â€Å"matter of fact† kind of tone that if he had not introduced a dash of humor here and there throughout his essay would have made it too technical to keep the average reader interested enough to read the whole composition while the essay by White draws the reader in and leaves them wanting more. The essay â€Å"Once More to the Lake† by E.B. White is a timeless piece of literature that the writer of this essay strongly recommends to any reader. References Roberts, P. M. (n.d.). How to say nothing in 500 words. Retrieved from https://docs.google.com/document/d/1Gw_UcMT4u-ZSW7ZBN_RAMspZFex6o83oIbnvtuV-CM8/edit?pli=1 White, E.B. Once more to the lake. Retrieved from http://www.freewebs.com/lanzbom/EBWhiteLakeEssay.pdf

Understanding Of Media Audiences

Understanding Of Media Audiences Audiences are a critical subject in studying media. Audience is the term used to describe a large number of unidentifiable people, who usually united by their participation in media use. (Hartley, 2002) Media has a huge power to influence audience thinking and behaviour. There are many approaches to deconstruct the relationship between the audience and the text. The question arise here is, how do human receive text from television, or internet etc.? How do human analyse and affect by the text? In this essay, we will discover two approaches looking into the audiences and how will they related the media or how do we understand media audiences from these approaches. In term of media, Uses and Gratifications (UG) Theory and two-step flow theory are the essential approaches of understanding the audiences. There are many academic studies developed under the UG theory since this idea arises over the past 100 years. On the other hand, two -step flow theory explains that the audiences will be influenced by the media or other opinion leader. Although these two theories has been criticized and negated, they help us to understand the relationship between the media and receiver. In the first part of the essay, we will discover two theory of study the audiences. The first approach is Uses and gratifications theory, this approach focus on the consumer and the audience, rather than the message. It is concern about how people (media audience) made choices and what they did when consuming texts. According to Katz (1959), ask not what the media can do to people, but what the people can do with media. In other words, audience should be an active role to use media for pursues their own needs. Blumler and Katz in The uses of mass communication bring up an idea: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦something of the way in which individuals uses communications, among other resources in their environment, to satisfy their needs and achieve their goals, and to do so by simply asking them. (Blumler Katz, 1974) Blumler and Katz (1974) concluded that different people use the same media for different purposes; therefore, the same media content may satisfy different needs for different individuals. Rosengren (1974) developed the idea of Katz and other scholars and presented the following diagram: mmm Figure 1 (Blumler, 2004 p.271) The diagram put more attention to the society and individual characteristics affect much of people needs. In term of individual characteristics, not just Psychological Set-up, but also added the Social Position, and Life History. Moreover, Rosengren build up `Perceived problem and solutions it explains human psychological process between needs and motives. Those elements not previously emphasized by Blumler and other scholars. In the diagram, basic needs, individual characteristics and society structure are three factors interact and result in people use media for variety of gratifications. Lucas and Sherry (2004) put more simplified model of Rosengrens paradigm.   According to psychologist Maslows hierarchic theory of needs, (1943) basic needs are divided five main cataloguers including physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem and self-actualization.(Maslow, 1943) More detail shows in the following figure: http://levelupliving.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/hierarchy-of-needs3.png Figure 3 (ICT Learning, 2010) However, in media perspective, according to Katz et.al put `needs into five different categories: cognitive, affective, personal integrative, social integrative and tension release needs. (Iqbal, 2010) In term of individual characteristics and society, we can clearly see these factors including psychological set-up, social position, life history and media structure in figure 1. Audience thinks perceived solutions when he realizes there is a perceived problem and thereby creates motives. After that, audience use the media, make choice to choose different types of media, how much time they going to spends with media etc. Audience also uses with other behavior such as personal contacts or other means of communication. At the end, audience decides to continue use the media while he could obtains gratification or non-gratification. Blumler et.al. concern audiences use media as a sough gratification. They point out UG theory is built up on five assumptions. The first assumption is that the audience is conceived as active (Blumler Katz, 1974) In other words, UG establishes people play the active role to discover their own satisfied information for different reason and in different ways. Secondly, they assume in the mass communication process much initiative in linking need gratification and media choice lies with the audience member. (ibid.) This is an idea that people can allow the media to influence them. `The media competes with other sources of need satisfaction. (ibid.) is the third assumption of UG. This is an idea that mass media is only one of the resources to satisfied people needs. Therefore, mass communication must compete with other non-media resources such as interrelationship communication aim to produce the need. The forth assumption is `many of the goals media use can be derived from data supplie d by the individual audience members themselves. (ibid.) It assumes audience is rational, and can fully understand their choices and motives. Audience also are able to explain them clearly. The last assumption is `value judgments about cultural significance of mass communication should be suspended while audience operations are explored on their own terms. (ibid.) This assumption believes people determinate the value of the media. These five assumptions help us to understanding the relationship between the media and audiences. For the motivation for media use, McQuail, Blumler, and Brown (1972). proposed a model of media-person interactions to classify four different gratifications: diversion, personal relationships, personal identity and surveillance. (Katz, E.) Diversion refers to people escape from reality like everyday problem and the constraints of routine. Secondly, personal relationship is about social interaction, people using the media as a substitute companionship. Thirdly, personal identity is including people referencing, learning and exporting themselves from the text. Lastly, surveillance is means the information could be helps our life such as weather report and news. In 1983, McQuail purposed four typology of common reasons for media use, there are information, personal identity, intergration and social interaction, and entertainment. (Chandler, 1994.) This is similar with media-person interactions in 1972 which have been mentioned above. Nevertheless, this typology had emphasis more on soc ial environment and psychological. With other theory, UG theory received some criticism. Ang, L claims that theory did not emphasis on social context and audience is individualistic. UG ignore the content of media, stressed that is the active audience needs. The research found out that the audience is not selective on the messages delivered to them. The result is a contradiction with the theory of assumption that audience is active to make choice for the use of media. The terms of need, motivations, and expectation have not clearly define while gratification sought and gratification obtained is indistinguishable. Despite this theory challenged by these factors, still has its value of researching by the audiences point of view of media. The second approach to understand the audiences is Two-Step Flow of communication. (P. E. Lazarsfeld, 1944) Lazarseld, Berelson and Gaudet introduced their hypothesis in 1955. Research had been carried out on the decision making on a Presidential election, the result of the research had concluded that information does not flow directly from the text into the audiences mind but is filtered through `opinion leaders then leader influence other audiences (followers). (Katz, 1955.) There is two distance stage of media text transmitted. The figure illustrates the how this theory works: Figure 4 (Katz, 1955) In the diagram above, messages no longer dispatch from the mass media (producers) to the receivers directly. Messages were first transmitted to opinion leader who then interpreted and give the information to other (followers) in face-to-face. (ibid.) This explains why media may have failed to alter audiences attitude or behavior. In other words, the effect of mass media is not universal, must be assessed to other media channels to influence the information or opinions. Unfortunately, this hypothesis has criticized and being questioned, For example, figure 4 shows followers only received message from opinion leader. Obviously, we can receive the information from mass media directly. In additional, some scholars discover that transmitting information in society not only two step flow. It is involved multi step flow. (Inglis, 1990) The transmitted is more complicated than we imagine. Moreover, we might get confuse who is the opinion leader. It is a general assumption that a person who influences other people can be opinion leader because they use media more, and socially active. Baran, S,J. defines opinion leader as a ` people who initially consume media content, interpret it in light of their own values and beliefs, and then pass it on to opinion followers. (Baran, 2002.) In other words, most of the opinion leaders social position or status or by virtue of their grater interest in the topic at hand. (Robinson, 1976) Nonetheless, we cannot be certain who opinion leader is? For instance, A is an opinion leader of fashion; however, A is a follower in music while B is an opinion leader. Therefore, opinion leader is depends on the position, background and issue etc. These theories receive many critics from scholars due to the confusion of the position of the person. In spite of those criticisms, two-step flow receives praises and influence mass media especially advertising. The theory refined the ability to predict the influence of media messages on audience behavior,(Dave, 2009) and the reason why people sometime does not influence by media. In the second part of the essay will be illustrate how those two approaches contribute to our understanding of media audiences. Through the study of uses and gratifications and two-step flow theory, we can understand what audience can do with media, their motivations to use media and how media can be transmitted. Put these knowledge into a mass media and into the society, we can explain some social phenomenon and why audience influences by each other. Uses and gratifications approach is very suitable in explaining why people watch television. To apply this theory into the context of audiences which watch TV, watching TV provide the basic needs, society media structure and individuals characteristics which will sum up to gratifications in Blumeler Theory where by they are information, personal identity, integration and social interaction, and entertainment. TV channels provide information such as news and advertisement. Audiences can easily find themselves on TV programme like quiz show. For example, audiences can compare with the experts, laugh at the contestants mistake. (Chandler, 1994) In term of integration and social interaction, audiences may watch the TV together and so create an interaction or communication. They also recognize and more importantly to interact with the highly stylized images presented by TV programmer, especially those entertainers, talk show hosts. (Levy, 1979) Audiences entertained by TV programme such a s game shows and soap operas. They are able to relax, escape from reality. Despite new means of media counties come out namely internet and telephone, still, television can `survive in the completion because tally audience needs of UG theory. Subsequencetly, we can use UG theory to explain audience use other means of media such as magazine and radio. On the other hand, many companies and advertiser may apply to two step flow approach. They agree that customer might change their view of the product or company because of other users opinion. Evidently, a business would be a success as long as they gained the opinion leader support. This is because opinion leader will promote for the business. For instance, social network such as Facebook reaches nearly 500 million active users in 2010 since Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg launch the website reaches mere 1 million active users in 2004. (Facebook, 2010) In this case, word of the mouth is `I add you on Facebook or `how come you dont have facebook? The initial opinion leader on Facebook is the founder and his university classmates. The aim of communication within the campus, however, communication has power to influence other. When a follower became an opinion leader, number of users will dramatically increase. Although the initial aim of founder is not a business, which shows how two -step flow works. Again, that theory can apply to other media or business, especially in this information explosion era. People can easy to obtain information or review from `opinion leader. And other example of two step flow is the source of Lazarseld et.al study -election campaigns. They concluded that only 5% of the people changed their voting behavior as a result of these media messages. (Katz, 1955.) The voters influence by their interpersonal communication (such as friends, politic tradition) and short-run considerations (such as candidate attractiveness or current social issue). This view of media effects known as limited effects theory. Audience is a giant subject of studying media. Beside these two approaches, we can extend the study of understanding audience. Those audiences have different preference or motivation in using the media. We can construct the audience to different cataloguers. In some study, gender, ages, and social class are the elements to decide the audience to use media. For instance, newspaper readers in different gender, age and social position will choose to buy/read different newspaper. The following table shows the newspaper readership: (Griffiths, 2010) In conclusion, uses and gratification and two-step flow theories are the important theories to study audiences behavior. Through this theory of UG, we can understand what people do with the media, how audience satisfy their need by using media to establish such needs and why people using different kinds of media or communication such as radio and television. In the same way, we can see sometime media not fully influence the audience in the theory of two step flow. This approach also suggests audiences are influenced by or face-to face communication with the opinion leader who is more active in media uses. There are many other approaches which provide knowledge for understanding the audiences behavior. In spite of some criticisms of these two theories which we had discussed in the essay, Uses and gratification theory and Two-step flow hypothesis are significant theoretically.

The Meditations by Rene Descartes Essay examples -- Rene Descartes, 20

In Descartes’ Meditations, his goal to prove the existence of things could only be accomplished if he was logical, clear, and correct in his thoughts and writings. The most important issues he noted were the threat of being deceived and the potential of being incorrect in his judgments, both of which would lead him into error. Error exists as a problem that individuals encounter on a regular basis, and it also exists as a focal point in Descartes’ Meditations. Descartes defines error as â€Å"a privation or lack of some knowledge which somehow should be in me.† As a â€Å"thinking thing†, which he defines as â€Å"a thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, is willing, is unwilling, and also imagines and has sensory perceptions†Ã‚ ¹, Descartes must use his knowledge to the best of his ability. In the mind, knowledge is dealt with in the faculty of judgment. This faculty is comprised of the faculties of intellect and will, and it is limited by knowledge yet pushed forward by will (Descartes, 41). Because of this conflict, we are able to make mistakes – or come to err. The first component of knowledge that must be examined is the faculty of intellect. Intellect allows one to think. Thought consists of the ability to understand, imagine, and perceive. Perception encompasses the ability to use the senses to form ideas of some object, whereas imagination allows one to fabricate ideas and form new thoughts. When one imagines, he simply invents ideas that exist to be judged by the mind. Ideas do not necessarily need to be true, and because of this they cannot be wrong. One can have the idea of some entity that does not exist, such as a satyr or siren, and this does not pose any issue. Simply holding an untrue idea is not an error. In the same s... ... can be free of errors as long as no judgments are made on subjects that are not completely understood. As the intellect merely presents ideas in the mind, the errors made are in their judgments, and the incorrect use of free will. It is important to be aware of the distinction between the faculty of free will and the actual use of free will, as the faculty is perfect yet error may exist in its use. Error is shown as a result of the incorrect use of the tools granted to us, and it stands that error can be eliminated when these tools are only used to the best of their ability; any further use is clearly how we come to err (p. 43). Work Cited Rene Descartes, The Meditations, tr. John Cottingham, in The Philosophical Writings of Descartes Vol. 2, ed. John Cottingham, Robert Stoofhoff, Dugald Murdock (New York: University of Cambridge Press, 1984), p. 19. The Meditations by Rene Descartes Essay examples -- Rene Descartes, 20 In Descartes’ Meditations, his goal to prove the existence of things could only be accomplished if he was logical, clear, and correct in his thoughts and writings. The most important issues he noted were the threat of being deceived and the potential of being incorrect in his judgments, both of which would lead him into error. Error exists as a problem that individuals encounter on a regular basis, and it also exists as a focal point in Descartes’ Meditations. Descartes defines error as â€Å"a privation or lack of some knowledge which somehow should be in me.† As a â€Å"thinking thing†, which he defines as â€Å"a thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, is willing, is unwilling, and also imagines and has sensory perceptions†Ã‚ ¹, Descartes must use his knowledge to the best of his ability. In the mind, knowledge is dealt with in the faculty of judgment. This faculty is comprised of the faculties of intellect and will, and it is limited by knowledge yet pushed forward by will (Descartes, 41). Because of this conflict, we are able to make mistakes – or come to err. The first component of knowledge that must be examined is the faculty of intellect. Intellect allows one to think. Thought consists of the ability to understand, imagine, and perceive. Perception encompasses the ability to use the senses to form ideas of some object, whereas imagination allows one to fabricate ideas and form new thoughts. When one imagines, he simply invents ideas that exist to be judged by the mind. Ideas do not necessarily need to be true, and because of this they cannot be wrong. One can have the idea of some entity that does not exist, such as a satyr or siren, and this does not pose any issue. Simply holding an untrue idea is not an error. In the same s... ... can be free of errors as long as no judgments are made on subjects that are not completely understood. As the intellect merely presents ideas in the mind, the errors made are in their judgments, and the incorrect use of free will. It is important to be aware of the distinction between the faculty of free will and the actual use of free will, as the faculty is perfect yet error may exist in its use. Error is shown as a result of the incorrect use of the tools granted to us, and it stands that error can be eliminated when these tools are only used to the best of their ability; any further use is clearly how we come to err (p. 43). Work Cited Rene Descartes, The Meditations, tr. John Cottingham, in The Philosophical Writings of Descartes Vol. 2, ed. John Cottingham, Robert Stoofhoff, Dugald Murdock (New York: University of Cambridge Press, 1984), p. 19.

Validation of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder :: Post-traumatic stress disorder, PTSD

The intention of this study is to validate the issue of PTSD which some have attempted to discredit as a medical condition. To achieve this, the magnitude and incidence rate of the condition requires robust evidence. This study is taking secondary data from the Vietnam Veterans National Readjustment Survey (NVVRS) and developing the analysis further. The technique employed here is Meta analysis which is more typically used for quantitative literature applications. In any analysis of secondary data it is crucial to consider the incidence rates of mental health issues among those who fought in Vietnam. It is also important to differentiate factors between the time periods of their lives before they joined the military, while they served in the military and their lives after they left the forces. It is central to what we are trying to achieve to identify those who might be at high risk of developing PTSD, as people will react in differing ways to different stimuli such as distr essing events or stressful circumstances. Population and Sample The data sample used for this study will be substantial due to the amount of information collected on post traumatic stress disorder. Samples were drawn from the nationwide probability sample of the NVVRS study. The first sample included 479,000 males Vietnam veterans (15.2 % of the total) who met the criteria for current post traumatic stress disorder. The second sample included 7,200 female Vietnam veterans with a current prevalence rate of 8.5%. The third set of samples included 350,000 Vietnam veterans of both genders, with 11.1% male and 7.8% female partial PTSD incidence rates. The last set of samples showed 30.6% of male Vietnam veteran and 26.9% of female veterans who met the criteria for developing PTSD (Kulka et al. 1990). Due to significant time constraints and limited access to information, a decision was made to use a Meta-Analysis. The Meta-Analysis provides a systematic evaluation of the quantitative analysis, which combines and summarizes several different studies. This method offers control over the data analysis, and by using statistical software, it addresses related hypotheses for delivery of precision in the use of codes. The main aim and focus of the Meta-Analysis in this research involves clearly identifying the problem and researching the literature for primary or representative studies. This approach allows for the creation of an appropriate data set for the evaluation, coding and analysis of the data in order to produce a valid analysis of the results.

The English Civil Wars and Quaker Persecution :: British History Essays

The English Civil Wars and Quaker Persecution The English Civil Wars began originally as a dispute over financial matters between the King of England (Charles I) and Parliament, but the underlying issue of this time, concerned the religion of the nation, which at the time included Scotland, Ireland, and part of North America. The Parliament consisted mostly of Protestant middle-class gentries and merchants. They did not believe in the King’s proposal of religious standardization that he tried to enforce on the entire nation. The proposal was the catalyst for two wars between Scotland and England from years of 1638-1640, as well as a larger divide between the King and Parliament. The events of these years led to a split in the nation over alliances. Those who supported the King were known as Royalists (or Cavaliers). This group was made up of higher-class citizens who respected social organization and solidity, as well as the King’s High Anglican beliefs. The opposing group, the so-called Roundheads, was made up of middle-class citizens who did not support a social hierarchy and were considered Puritans (a derogatory term at the time for radical reformers). By 1647, the English Civil War was under way. The war between Scotland and England raged for the next five years. In 1649 Charles I was eventually convicted of treason and beheaded by the Parliament of England. As the right of the throne of England passed on to Charles II, an idea supported by both Ireland and Scotland, the Royalist English army was decisively defeated by the Roundheads. The monarchy of England was abolished, and a Commonwealth created. It was not until nine years later that Charles II returned from exile and resumed the monarchy of England. During this war, actually driven by economic concerns, many religious radical groups were forming among the Roundheads. One of the most important groups was formed in 1650, and was later dubbed the â€Å"Quakers.† This religious movement held that the presence and grace of God was inside of everyone; they felt no need for elaborate church services, priests, or offerings of any kind.

Budget Deficit Definition and How It Affects the Economy

How does a government budget deficit affect the economy? Identify two periods in recent history in which the United States has run budget deficits. What were the reasons for the deficits during those time periods? A government’s budget deficit occurs when the amount of money going out exceeds the amount of money coming in and is defined as a shortfall of revenues under payment. For example say the amount of taxes being collected is $500,000 but the amount of government spending is $7000,000 the government has a deficit of $200,000.Governments often fund these deficits with the sale of bonds; this sale is an IOU to the buyer and a promise for repayment in the future. In an effort to make up for the deficit and the increase in the nations debt the government might increase taxes and interest rates; this affects the economy in a negative way by decreasing the amount of money consumers have to spend on goods and services. A chain creation may occrue decreasing demand causing suppl y to also fall. During the years of 1981 to 1989 the deficit within the U.S. government drove up the amount of debt held by the public by almost triple. Ronald Reagan increased the amount of money the government was spending on the military but also decreased taxes. With no ability to fund the military spending the government experienced a deficit and borrowed money, which increased the public debt. The same was true for the Bush administration, as the cost of two wars increased and the amount of tax breaks also increasing the amount of tax revenue decreased.In an effort to pay for the nations wars the government increased the borrowing and drove up the publics debt to 40% of the nations GDP. Of course the largest increase in the nations deficit has come in the last three years, the nations wars and economic stimulus has, in the way of increased spending, increased the nations deficit and caused the nations debt to rise to &15. 5 trillion or 63% of the nations GDP.

American History thru 1877

In 1492, Columbus set sail for Asia but found the Americas instead, exploring several islands of the Caribbean Sea. In the following years Columbus made three more voyages, and many other Spaniards explored the Caribbean islands and mainland. During the late Middle Ages, Mongols threatened Europe with pillage and destruction. However, they also unified much of Eurasia, creating trade routes and communication lines stretching from Middle East to China. A series of Europeans took advantage of these to explore eastwards.The trade routes between Europe and Middle East, however, was almost completely controlled by traders from the Italian city states. Upon the collapse of the Mongol Empire, the trade routes to the east soon became far more difficul and dangerous. The Black Death would eventually also block travel and trade. The land route to the East was controlled by Mideterranean commercialists and Islamic empires that both controlled the flow and price of goods. The rise of the expansi onist Ottoman Empire has also further limited the possibilities of European overland trade.The Age of Exploration has begun. During the Rennaisance, scholars rediscovered the works of the ancient Greeks and Roman geographers. Christopher Columbus came to believe that he could reach Asia in the East by sailing West. Instead, he found the New World. With the advances of navigation, military technology and shipbuilding, the Europeans started to explore the world by ocean searching for trading partners, particularly of gold, silver and spices. They sought a viable trade route which would be uncontested by those Mediterranean powers.Similarities and lesser differences among the Southern Colonies The Virginia Company obtained a royal charter enabling each to found a colony, granting the right to coin money, raise revenue, and to make laws, but reserving much power to the king. The object of the lord proprietor, Baltimore, was twofold. He wished to found a state and become its ruler, for h e was truly a man of the world; he loved power and he loved wealth. Second, he wished to furnish a refuge for the oppressed of his own faith; for the Roman Catholics, as well as the Puritans, were objects of persecution in England.He was granted charter to Maryland. He was required by the charter to send the king two Indian arrows each year, as a token of allegiance to the Crown, and if any gold and silver were mined in Maryland, one fifth of it was to be paid to the king. But aside from this the proprietor was invested with almost kingly power. He could not tax his people without their consent, but he could coin money, make war and peace, pardon criminals, establish courts, and grant titles of nobility.The charter, however, provided that the laws be made by the proprietor and the freemen—democracy was beginning to emerge. It was the first colony in which religious toleration had a place. South Carolina differs from most of the colonies in not having had to battle against imp ending dissolution during its first years of existence, and from all the others in depending largely on slave labor from the beginning. Popular assembly began to frame laws on the basis of libery.The charter conferred the right of making laws on the proprietors only by and with the advice, assent, and approbation of the freemen. North Carolina was twin-born with South Carolina and both were not separated politically until 1729 and their histories run parallel for many years. The object in founding the colony in Georgia was threefold: to afford an opportunity to the unfortunate poor to begin life over again, to offer a refuge to persecuted Protestants of Europe, and to erect a military barrier between the Carolinas and Spanish Florida.Georgia was the only colony of the thirteen that received financial aid by a vote of Parliament — the only one in the planting of which the British government, as such, took a part. The colony differed from all others also in prohibiting slavery and the importation of intoxicating liquors. The settlers were to have their land free of rent for ten years, but they could take no part in the government. The trustees made all the laws; but this arrangement was not intended to be permanent; at the close of the proprietary period the colony was to pass to the control of the Crown. Jamestown, VirginiaJamestown, Virginia, located at Jamestown Island on the banks of James River, both of which were named after King James I of England, 60 miles from the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, was founded on May 14, 1607 by the Virginia Company—a group of London Entrepreneurs to whom were granted a charter to establish an English settlement in the Chespeake region of North America, and were instructed to find gold and water route to the Orient. The location was selected primarily because it offered a favorable strategic defensive position against other European forces which might approach by water.However, the colonists soon discovered that the swampy and isolated site was plagued by mosquitoes and tidal river water unsuitable for drinking, anf offered limited opportunities for hunting and little space for farming. The area was also inhabited by native Americans, the Algonqiuan from whom the colonists found themselves under attacked. It appears that eventual structured leadership of Captain John Smith kept the colony from dissolving. By 1609, during the departure of Captain John Smith, only 60 of the original 214 settlers survived, and by June of that year, the settlers decided to bury the cannon and armor and abandon the town.The arrival of the new governor general, Lord De La Ware, and his supply ships brought the colonist back to the fort. Although the suffering did not totally end for decades, some years of peace and prosperity followed the wedding of the daughter of the Algonquian chief, Pocahontas, to English entrepreneur John Rolfe. Jamestown became the first successful English settlement in what was to become the United States of America The Iroquois The Iroquois Confederacy, or simply Iroquois, also known as The League of Pecae and Power, is a group of Native Americans allied together in peace.They were originally composed of five nations: the Mohawk, the Oneida, the Onondaga, the Cayuga, and the Seneca. They were later joined by the Tuscarora. They were collectively known as the Haudenosaunee, or People of the Longhouse, because of the types of houses they lived in. They became he strongest forces in the seventeenth and eighteenth century, having been involved in the Beaver Wars and the French and Indian Wars against the French, and having participated during the American Revolution. The PilgrimsThe Pilgrims, or The Pilgrim Fathers, is the name commonly applied to the early settlers of the Plymouth Colony. They were members of the Puritans, who were oppressed during the Protestant Reformation in Europe and began to seek a better freedom in the New World. They came to the America in mid November of 1620 aboard Mayflower and drafted the Mayflower Compact, which ensured rights for all the settlers and promised cooperation among settlers for the general good of the Colony. However, like the settlers in Jamestown, were bothered by attacks from the native Americans and suffered during the first winter.They got help from friendlier natives who taught them their skills like woodcraft, hunting, how to make maple sugar, moccasins, canoes, and how to raise crops of maiz and tobacco, all of which helped them to survive. In the autumn of 1621, they produced their first successful harvest and celebrated the first Thanksgiving. Plymouth is said to be the second successful English settlement in North America. Issues and Conflicts In Colonial Politics Most of the original English colonies in North America were private ventures that were less supervised by the English government.The institutions by the colonies' sponsors varied enormously with each other. Most governors in colonia l territories were appointed by the Crown and were responsible for enforcing British trade laws and carrying out other directives, executing colonial laws, administeing justice, and appointing most officers. They were also responsible for provincial defense and diplomatic relations with the native Americans and other colonies. Colonists expected remarkably little from the British government.Budget were low; paid full-time officials were few; civil, judicial, and police establishments were small, part-time and unprofessional; and military establishments were temporary. Politics provided little scope for the active involvement of the citizens. Leadership and institutional structures were weak and undefined, levels of political expertise and socialization low, and political conciousness undeveloped. Under such conditions, public life was volatile, and would-be leaders jockeyed with one another for power, wealth, and prestige.In a few places for brief periods, this primitive politics of competition resulted in the triumph of restrictive oligarchies. The gradual conversion of these colonies into royal provinces helped to develop into roughly similar political systems between colonies, for most of the pattern were derived from English political institutions. However politics developed, public life became more settled. Levels of political socialization and consciousness rose, and institutional and leadership structures became more sharply articulated.A more modern type of polity began to emerge around 1750 with the development of semi-permanent political parties. Factors that moved America towards Independence There were many factors that led Americans fight for their independence against Britain. There were growing grievances against the British authorities among the colonies, from which only one of the original thirteen colonies were formally founded by Britain, others were haphazardly founded by trading companies, religious groups or land speculators.Republican se ntiments were also growing, which, by its very nature, was opposed to heirarchical and authoritarian institutions like monarchy and aristocracy, from which Britain forms it government. Radical Whigs ideas were also widely read by the citizens of the colonies. The radical Whigs feared the threat to liberty posed by the arbitrary power of the monarch and representatives in Parliament and warned the citizens to be on guard against corruption and to be vigilant against possible conspiracies to strip them of their liberties.The colonies were also used to participating in politics, Britain, however has left them alone for many years, denied them representation to the Parliament, while the citizens must obey British laws. Grievances were raised when the British government imposed taxes on their colonies, which eventually led to the Declaratory Act, from which Britain asserted its absolute authority over its colonies. The colonies, however, wanted a share of sovereignty. In 1774, colonists called for the Continental Congress to consider ways of redressing colonial grievances.The Declaration of Rights was drawn, protesting Britain's colonial policies, and sent to the king of Britain. The Congress also called for the creation of The Continental Association. The Association, however, did not call for independence, only to repeal offensive legilation by Britain to its colonies. The Parliament rejection of the Congress' petitions prompted the Association to convene for a second Continental Congress in May 1775, which has eventually adopted the US Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation.The American Revolutionary War had officially begun upon the Battles of Lexington and Concord. The Seven Years War The Seven Years War involved all the major European powers and is a struggle against the French control of North America. It started in May 1756 with the official declaration of war by England against France and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on February 1763. The treaty ended France's position as major colonial power in the Americas and its position as leading power in Europe.England's success, however, was costly and the Parliament's attempt to cover for its debts and to pay for continuing military presence in America by direct taxation of the colonists soon strained relations between mother country and colonies. The Merits and Menace of Mercantilism The British authoriies embraced a theory called mercantilism, that justified the control over the colonies. Mercantilism states that wealth was power and that a country's economic wealth could be measured by the amount of gold and silver in its treasury, and that the colonies exists for the benefit of the mother country.The british expected the American colonies to furnish products needed by Britain, and to export and but foods exclusively from Britain. The British crown also reserved rights to nullify any legislation passed by the colonial assemblies if such laws worked against the mercantalist system. The merits of mercantilism includes that Britain paid a lot of money to colonial producers, tobacco planters also enjoyed a monopoly in the British market, and that the colonies also benefitted from the protection of the world's mightiest navy and strong, seasoned army of redcoats without paying any tax.Mercantilism, however, stifled economic initiative since colonies could not buy and sell products they wanted to other countries, and Americans found it debasing—they felt used and kept in a state of economic adolescence, never allowed to come of age. Stamp Tax Uproar The Stamp Act of 1765 was passed in the Birtish parliament with the primary purpose to raise revenues to support military force due to the added defense requirements resulting from vast new territories acquired during the war and conflict with American Indians. The act required all legal documents, permits, contracts, newpapers, wills, pamphlets, etc., in the colonies to carry a t ax stamp. It was opposed by Americans stating that the Act would hurt their liberty—that them being taxed without being granted Representation where the taxes are laid, then they are reduced from the character of free subjects to the miserable state of tributary slaves—and that they thought the British army is no longer needed. Any offenders had to be tied in Admiralty Courts and the burden of proof is upon the defendants, which meant that defendants were assumed guilty unless they could prove themselves innocent.Common Sense and the Declarataion of Independence The opening paragraph of the United States Declaration of Independence states that: â€Å"when in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.† Signatories of Declaration have agreed that â€Å"all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness† and that â€Å"whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.† These claims of the Declaration were supported by Thomas Paine's Common sense, in which he states that the end of government is freedom and security; that government is necessary to enforce regulations or laws that were created to mitigate the problems of society, which were â€Å"produced by our wants† and â€Å"promotes our happiness positive ly by uniting our affections. † The Declaration claims that the King of Britain has refused his â€Å"Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for public good† Hamilton's Federalist and Jefferson's Republican The Federalist Party wanted a fiscally sound and strong nationalistic government.Hamilton proposed that state governors would be appointed by the President; the President and Senators would hold office for life; and the Congress would retain exclusive authority to make all the laws of the country. His principles were based on the notion of â€Å"public good† and the superiority of a government which derived its power from the consent of the governed, and believed that only a talented few—understood to mean men drawn from the wealthy and aristocratic strata of society—had the wisdom and dispassionate foresight to implement the measures necessary for the public good.He believed that the great majority of people operated primarily out of s elf-interest and could not be trusted to think or act judiciously in matters of state power. Hence, a proposal such as seating the President for life, so that he would not be subject to the whims of a fickle electorate. He emphasized on an â€Å"energetic government,† which means that government should be proactive in economic and military affairs, have the power the supersede lower governments—as at the state level—and be able to exercise authority directly on the people.He points that only an energetic government would be able to provide the stability and order necessary to secure the blessings of liberty for the people. The Republicans, however, rejected the ideas of Hamilton. They feared that Federalism favored the interests of wealthy patricians over the great number of agrarian laborers, and would set the stage for a return to monarchy. Jefferson argued that the powers of the government should be exercised by by each representatives chosen for such short t erms as should render secure the duty of expressing the will of their constituents.He believed that the mass of the citizens is th safest depository of their own rights, for the evils flowing from the duperies of the people are less injurious than those from the egoism of their agents. He advocated that every people may establish what form of government they please and change it as they please, implying that the same is true with its leaders—the will of the nation is the only thing essential. Uneasy Missouri Compromise In 1818, the Missouri territory applied for statehood and wanted to allow slavery in their state.Abolitionist sentiment was growing in the north, and there were, at the time, eleven free states and eleven slave states. If Missouri becomes a slave state, the tie would be broken and those who favor slavery would be a step closer to legalizing slavery, and the Northern members refused Missouri's admittance as a slave state because of this. However in 1819, Maine a pplied for statehood as a free state, which was, of course, threatened by the Southern members of the Congress to prevent its admittance.The Missouri Compromise was an agreement passed in 1820 between pro and anti-slavery factions in the United States Congress, allowing Missouri to enter as a slave stae and Maine as a free state, and to avoid conflicts in the future, added that all future states north of Missouri's southern border be free states and the future south states be slave states. The compromise remained in effect until 1854, when the US Congress passed the Kansa-Nebraska Act. Articles of ConfederationThe Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, or, shortly, Articles of Confederation, was the first governing constitution of the United stated of America. The thirteen states were independent until the articles' ratification was completed in 1781, whence the legal existence of the United States of America as a union with a confederation government yet retained sovereignt y and every function of sovereignty not specifically deputed to the government of the federation.Although the articles were started to be written in 1777 during the early part of the American Revolution, several years has passed before its ratification because of the states' fear of a powerful central government, the Continental Congress had been careful to give the states as much independence as possible and to specify the limited functions of the federal government. The Articles were enforced from March 1, 1781 to June 21, 1788, when the present Constitution of the United States went into effect. Second War of American IndependenceOn June 18, 1812, President James Madison signed the US Congress' official declaration of war against the United Kingdom to protect American ships bound to France from being stopped, searched and being asked to pay a fee on British ports before continuing. The war was called the â€Å"second war of independence† because it gave an opportunity for the Americans to defend their freedom and honor in the face of British disrespect. The war lasted until 1815, although a treaty was already signed on December of the previous year.One of the battles, the Battle of Fort McHenry, inspired Francis Scott Key to write a poem that eventually supply the lyrics for the â€Å"Star-Spangled Banner. † Secession of Southern Colonies The co-existence of slave-owning South with an increasing anti-slavery Nroth made conflict inevitable. In 1858, Lincoln expressed his desire to â€Å"arrest the further spread of [slavery], and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction. † Abolitionists emphasized on the Declaration of Independence's clause that all men are equal.Southern states depended on slavery to support their economy. The Union was considered a â€Å"voluntary compact† entered into by independent sovereign states for as long as it served their purpose. The north needed a central government to build an infrastructure of roads and railways, protect its complex trading and financial interests, and control the national currency. The South, however, depended much less on the federal government than did other regions and felt no need to strengthen it.Thy feared that a strong central government might interfere with slavery. Compromises were possible as long as niether side controlled the Senate. However, vast territories in the West and Southwest would soon be petitioning for statehood. North and South began a long and bitter struggle over whether the territories would enter the Union as free or slave states. The election of Lincoln, who was a dedicated Abolitionist, was the final trigger for the secession of the Southern States since they feared that the administration would threaten slavery.Compromises were offered before the civil wars but failed to prevent it because of the flaws in the compromise. The Corwin Amendment, for example, would forb id to any attempt to subsequently amend the Constitution to empower the Federal government to abolish or interfere with the domestic institutions of the states, including persons â€Å"held to labor or service,† were objected by Abolitionists who claims that the Constitution, at that time, did not protect slavery.The Crittenden Compromise offered the permanent reestablishment of the Missouri Compromise line but would also guarantee the permanent existence of slavery in the slave states which was, of course, rejected heavily by Abolitionists. Advantages of the Southern and Northern States during the Civil War The Southern states sought independence and would only have to defend itself against the Northern states who wanted to restore the Union, which meant it had to compel the seceded states to give up their hopes to found a new nation.The Southern states would only then need to prolong the war to a point where the Northern States would consider the efforts too costly in lives and money to persist. If the North chose not to mount a military effort to coerce the seceded states back into the Union, the Southern states, who were known to become the Confederacy, would win independence by default. The Northern states, however, planned to apply pressure on the confederacy from all sides. A combined force of naval and army units would sweep down the Mississippi River, dividing the Confederacy’s eastern and western states.At the same time, the Union navy would also institute a blockade to deny the Confederacy access to European manufactured goods. Manifest Destiny The Manifest Destiny was the belief that the United States was destined to expand from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific Ocean. It holds that territorial expansion is not only inevitable but divinely ordained. Manifest Destiny eventually became a standard historical term for the expansion of the United States accross North American Continent. The Great Debate: Lincoln versus DouglasThe Lincol n-Douglas debates were a series of seven formal meetings during the Illinois senatorial campaign of 1858, in which Republican Abraham Lincoln argued the issue of slavery with the Democratic incumbent, Stephen A. Douglas. Douglas' Kansas-Nebraska Act repealed the Missouri Compromise ban on slavery and replaced it with the doctrine of popular sovereignty, which meant that the people of a territory coud decide for themselves whether to allow slavery. Lincoln criticized that popular sovereignty would nationalize and perpetuate slavery.Newspapers across the nation reprinted the full text of the debates, and after the election Licoln edited all the text and had them published in a book. The widespread of the original debates and the subsequent popularity of the book led eventually to Lincoln's nomination for the President of the United States by the 1860 Republican National Convention in Chicago. The Dred Scott Bombshell Dred Scott was a slave whose master took him north into free states where he lived for many years.After his master's death, he sued for his freedom from his his new master, claiming that he had been in a free territory and was therefore free. Th Missouri Supreme Court agreed and Scott temporarily gained his freedom, but his new master appealed to the US Supreme Court. On March 6, 1857, the Dred Scott decision was handed down by the Supreme Court, declaring African Americans were not US citizens and therefore could not bring suit in federal court under diversity of citizenship rules, thus overruling the Missouri Court decision.However, the real bombshell statement was that a legislature, including the Congress, cannot outlaw slavery as that would go against the 5th Amendment, stating that a person's property cannot be taken without due process of law. This statement would have been sufficient to declare that the Missouri Compromise had been unconstitutional. The decision would also eventually give rise to the American Civil Warin 1861.